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About this episode

Welcome to episode 16 of the series Philosophy Unveiled, by the author Lane Friesen. I’m Rachel and I’m doing the reading today.We saw in the last episode that mental energy is based in a cognitive strategy which is not easily noticed by today’s psychologists. We suggested that the health of this strategy, which we call Exhorter thought, is critical to the normal functioning of the mind. Overactivation of this form of thought, from within its location in the orbitofrontal lobe of the brain, can result in Tourette’s syndrome. Underactivation in contrast is generally an aspect of Parkinson’s disease. Some people, it appears, are consciously aware of the functioning of Exhorter thought. That is, they are Exhorters by cognitive style. In this episode, I’d like to present a profile of the Exhorter person’s most common traits, as we discovered them from history – it will tell us about the functioning of Exhorter strategy, and thus the orbitofrontal lobe in the brain of every person, even in those who are not Exhorters by cognitive style. For those who appreciate more detail, there are book-length records of the historical and neurological evidence on our website, cognitivestyles.com, in the document orderedcomplexity.pdf.Alright, let’s get started. Here’s the Exhorter profile, and I’ll be addressing it to the Exhorter himself.As an Exhorter, you get excited about whatever is different from what happened just a moment ago. You are subject to real enthusiasms—what you are doing now is always, for you, the best and the most important. You get totally involved in it and put in all your effort. You can go from enthusiasm to enthusiasm. Each time you drop what you are doing and move on to what is more novel or exciting.You seem to have boundless energy. You are having so much fun that you can keep going long after everyone else is exhausted. True, it may take some time for you to get started in the morning, but you continue late into the night. Others get their energy from you.As a child, you were probably into everything. You were the one who played the trumpet and the saxophone; you had the loud voice and the loud noise. There was also the bubbly smile and the happy disposition, but your parents despaired: you bounced off the walls; nothing they said had any effect.Even now, you do what is important. Everything that you do is impor­tant, or you wouldn’t be doing it. You simply don’t notice the minor details, until they cause problems and intrude on your thinking. Somehow, you know which details are important—the rest you ignore, and leave for others. You are moving on!Actually, it would be a major miracle if you were watching this, starting from the beginning of the video series! You learn from experience, watching what works and what doesn’t work. Abstract descriptions, such as we covered in the last sections, would cause you extreme boredom! I would have lost you for sure! You’ll be interested only when others start analyzing you, based on what I’m going to say.You seldom get depressed or discouraged—or bogged down in theory. You won’t let it happen. When you feel low, then off you go to a party, or to your friends. You’ll paint the town red. For some reason, you seem to have a peculiarly high tolerance for alcohol; you can drink others under the table. The next morning, you don’t seem to have much of a hangover.You are very persuasive; others might call it manipulative. You know precisely the right emotional ‘hot buttons’ to push in order to get people around you to do for you what you do not wish to do for yourself. You use this information to tease and to push others: your friends, your kids, or your dog. Your zest for living and sense of humor let you get away with it. Those around you love you, even when you eat their candy after eating and sharing yours.You can always think of something to say. It is not necessary for you to know a lot about a subject in order to start talking—you could give a speech on almost anything. It takes effort to stop talking; if there is nothing to interrupt you, you naturally keep going. In public, you could easily talk for an extra half hour, or even an hour, if you weren’t careful.You find it easy to exaggerate. You say it the way it could or should be. You want to arouse enthusiasm: the important thing is the decision that people will make, not necessarily the facts. When others get involved, then your statements will become true. You may try to control your exaggeration but it takes effort; your imagination always makes things bigger than they are.You are a great salesman—you could sell refrigerators to Eskimos. You are totally sold on your present product: everyone should buy it. You are good at sharing this enthusiasm with others. You tell them what they need, and then you push for a decision. Up and down go your eyebrows as you make your points. It is easy for you to sell over the telephone: listeners can find it hard to resist your warm persua­siveness.You hate the red tape, though, that is associated with selling. Filling in forms, typing letters, spelling words correctly, and—horrors!—dealing with government regulations are things you get the secretary to do. Even with mechanical objects, you are often clumsy with your hands. Things seem to break around you. When forced to deal with something boring, such as homework or red tape, you are strongly tempted to daydream. You stare into space, and you escape into internal worlds of imagination in which memory interacts with external experience. You can live in ‘what could be’ for hours.If you’re near water, it’s very likely that you spend at least some of your time at the beach, preferably out on the water boating or sailing. You find it mentally relaxing to travel on the water; it frees up your imagination. Others may sit in one place and fish; you prefer to keep moving—it is a world without limits.Some of you who hear this, who are not Exhorters, may be wondering whether the author likes Exhorters. Yes, the author likes Exhorters, for they break up the milling crowd that is doing nothing, and they get things moving again. But you, as an Exhorter, know very well that it’s not possible to get you moving, internally, unless I speak very plainly. When those close to you ask you to do, yourself, what you want them to do, your first response is often, “You don’t love me!” Usually you are offended, very deeply, long before you are affected personally.Sometimes, though, you dig in your heels and stop ‘moving on.’ Now, you have a vision. You’re going to see some changes, and you’re going to stick with your current project until you see them implemented! Perhaps you want to help the down-and-out in the city core; maybe you wish to start a new computer education program. It’s really exciting!You, Mr. Charisma, begin to gather an in-group of like-minded individuals around you. They believe in you, and in your vision. They insulate you from a cold and uncaring world. You promote. You speak. You motivate. You gather in more excited people.Enthusiastically, you get started. You stir up excitement and action, in exactly those areas where nobody is doing anything: “Let’s get going!” You will deal with problems as they arise.You quickly act like an expert, even in areas where you may have very little experience. You learn the right buzz words: the critical official terms. In a short time you may even be telling others who have done it much longer what to do. This natural ability for leadership and direction can, in fact, be a great skill.As for you, you’re having more fun than you ever thought possible. What you do, in your role, is what other people would like to do for a vacation. You maintain a very fine line between work and play: for example, your staff meeting may be held at the pool or on a speedboat. Others don’t notice how hard they’re working for you; they’re caught up in the fun of it all.You increase effort when you meet opposition; you don’t usually alter strategy. If something doesn’t work, you may do the same thing at twice the intensity, working your staff three or four times as hard. You meet problems head on, and you defeat them. The shortest distance between two points, for you, is a straight line—even when it cuts across what others are doing.Let me say this to those of you who are not Exhorters: he packages things beautifully. Suppose he starts a business; his first steps are to design the letterhead, and get a big sign. If he develops a computer education program, he’ll acquire the latest machines, networked together. The contents, though, are often missing. Shelves in the store on opening day, for example, are decorated, but somewhat empty; software is not always there for the computer.And so things don’t work out. Sometimes you take the same vision and try it in another location, with different people. You don’t notice that it’s the identical thing all over again. My, are you ever setting yourself up for a terrific mid-life crisis. Other times, you develop in character. Soon you are sharing decision points to personal maturity. You encourage others to stick with it in difficult situations, so that they too can learn.In your speaking, you notice the individual with potential. Before, you saw the one person who was not paying attention to your words. Now you are aware also of the individual who can make choices, as you have, and develop in character.You give personal interviews before others join your group; it can strike terror into subordinates! Character is the essential; when someone close to you is disloyal, you may not ever trust him again. You are now immensely disciplined. You get up, perhaps, at 5 am to read books and memorize essential points. You change lives. You give hope in situations that seem hopeless. As always, you thrive in times of crisis.The Exhorter module in the orbitofrontal lobe of the brain, it turns out, works together with Contributor strategy in the dorsolateral region of the brain to generate imagination—it is a broad form of thought, running all the way from motor movement to abstract reasoning. Exhorter analysis is responsible for initial coarse beginnings of this imagination: as a person, the Exhorter, in both thought and action, is really rather ‘clumsy.’ Of course, he also gets things started. Contributor strategy adds the fine movements, and optimizes things: a person conscious in this module is the athlete, the artisan, the airline pilot—he doesn’t begin until everything is ready, and he knows he won’t fail.The Exhorter daydreams; the Contributor forms Exhorter dreams—subconscious in him—into plans. The Contributor can close his eyes, stand still, and ski down the hill ‘in his head.’ Flying a jet fighter, he becomes ‘one with his machine.’The Exhorter, we said, loves the water—that’s because it is two-dimen­sional. Exhorter strategy appears to take care of two of the dimensions of space; Contributor thinking adds the third. Persons conscious in Contributor analysis like to fly, in the three dimensions of space, rather than sail; or perhaps they dive beneath the water, in a SCUBA outfit, from the boat on the surface.The Exhorter uses his face a lot, especially his eyes and eyebrows; there is that famous ‘Exhorter wink.’ Presumably, the Exhorter module is responsible for facial movement. In contrast, Contributor thought handles the hands in particular. The person conscious in Contributor analysis is the expert in mime—his face can remain frozen as his body moves.Alcohol, incidentally, appears to affect these two parts very differ­ently. Observation tells us, first of all, that the Exhorter as a cognitive style has an unusually high tolerance for alcohol; very often, he can drink others under the table. If we turn from the Exhorter then to those drinking around him, we notice tongues loosening, volume increasing, and conversation becoming less refined. Eyebrows rise and fall; faces show expression. These are Exhorter traits—we conclude therefore, from what we see in the Exhorter and his non-Exhorter companions, that alcohol enhances internal Exhorter analysis. [For those who are interested, we present the precise neurological mechanisms in the analysis on our website.]Contributor thought in contrast is inhibited—for most people, fine motor movement and planning dissipate; they get clumsy and knock things over, it becomes dangerous to drive a car. The Exhorter person, as part of his conscious control of Exhorter strategy, can evidently shrug off the effects of this Contributor inhibition—he just doesn’t seem to be affected as are the others. His tolerance for alcohol is surprisingly high.Now, we’ll recall from philosophy that cognitive style appears to be a difference in consciousness. Since we all have the same brain, what is conscious in one person must then be subconscious in another. This becomes particularly obvious when we compare the Contributor with the Exhorter. Let’s look at what we have just learned about the Exhorter as a person, and then imagine these traits being made available to some Contributor individual, from the Contributor person’s subconscious.The Exhorter as a person formulates hopes and visions; the Contributor sees these coming to him from another part of his mind—he calls it his imagi­nation.What we’re saying, at this point, is that the Classification loop, where Contributor strategy does its imagination, is a sub-component of the Judging loop, which is energized by Exhorter thought.History suggests that the Exhorter as an individual has unlimited energy; the Contributor in contrast can be very lazy. Let’s look at the way in which the two strategies of Exhorter and Contributor interact to develop vision, from a foundation in dreams – we’ll begin with what we term the Vision loop, or V1.The right hemisphere component of Contributor analysis, or C(r), taps into the energy of subconscious Exhorter analysis as the Contributor implements a plan. The Contributor’s energies are husbanded, so that they will not run out. Now, why might the Contributor run out of energy? Well, first of all, if Perceiver strategy has principles which would be violated by the action, then Perceiver thought can block the flow of Exhorter energy. Its independent activity automatically tears apart the image in Mercy thought – we recall from Berkeley, the Mercy philosopher, that it is Perceiver strategy which is responsible for object binding. Now, if Perceiver strategy breaks away from the real world, through independent activity, and starts thinking about cause and effect, and other things, what will that feel like, to Mercy strategy? We recall that Berkeley the Mercy felt that God was holding his thoughts together, so that they remained in his mind even when he closed his eyes – we then saw, when we looked at Locke the Perceiver, that Berkeley’s ‘God’ was actually Berkeley’s own internal subconscious Perceiver analysis. This form of thought was holding his thoughts together. If Perceiver strategy breaks away from its primary task of binding the observed world together in Mercy thought, in order to ponder consequences that might link to the contemplated action, then Mercy analysis will feel that its ‘God’ has left it, or perhaps even died. It will be terrible – Nietzsche the Contributor philosopher describes in his writings what it felt like for him.In other words, if I decide to take a gun into a bank in order to rob it, then as soon as I enter the door of that bank with the gun, I will feel that I have left ‘God’ on the sidewalk behind me. It will happen automatically, from the simple fact that Perceiver strategy, which is responsible for object binding within Mercy thought, will begin to function autonomously, and explore links to possible consequences of the contemplated action, as the urge to act, from Exhorter analysis, passes through it to Contributor thought in the right hemisphere.There’s a bidirectional pathway from Mercy thought to Exhorter strategy, which means that data can flow downwards from Mercy strategy to Exhorter analysis, which we recall is Locke the Perceiver’s substratum, and so Mercy disorientation alters the Exhorter energy source, and the flow of energy to Contributor analysis is cut off. Contributor strategy can no longer act. We’ve just described the right hemisphere aspect of conscience; it’s the component of the Judging loop that gives it its function of judging.OK, so let’s suppose that Perceiver strategy and its conscience are not the source of the energy cut-off. What other mechanism could be responsible? Well, let’s suppose that action by Contributor strategy in the right hemisphere, which works with means, is not compatible with Contributor end goals in the left. Exhorter strategy in this case may pull the plug on energy, and leave the right hemisphere Judging circuit without any drive. I’d like to suggest that it does this by slipping into day-dreaming. It’s a mechanism that operates entirely apart from Perceiver thought and its conscience. Now, what sort of a loop could be responsible for day-dreaming? Let’s work it out.The loop will need to involve Contributor strategy in the left hemisphere, which is aware of ends, and it must connect to Exhorter analysis in the right hemisphere, which is the source of energy for Contributor strategy in the right hemisphere, which does imaginative planning that orders the use of means. There’s only one way in which it can happen. The MBNI path of ISFP [and you recall, MBNI is our substitute label for the theory with the trademarked name that we cannot use] sends data to Mercy analysis, which passes it in turn to Exhorter thought.Now, in order to form a loop, this data flow must find its way back to Contributor analysis in the left hemisphere. Again, there’s only one way it can occur.Alright, let’s pull these elements out, and look at the loop that results. There are several interesting implications. First, this circuit involves both segments of Exhorter thought. Thus, when Exhorter thought begins to become cognitively active, it can generate dreams and visions which may interrupt the operation of imaginative Contributor planning. They can in fact pull the plug completely on the Contributor’s energy source that he is depending upon to get his work done, and leave him with the mental equivalent of ‘writer’s block,’ in whatever task he may be attempting to fulfil.Now, there’s of course a positive aspect to this cognitive tension as well. Data from the Vision loop, as it is driven by C(l), and amplified by Exhorter strategy, can flow into the Judging loop, and alter the activity in C(r), the component of Contributor thought in the right hemisphere. That is one reason why we say that left hemisphere Contributor strategy works with ends, which are related to visions, whereas right hemisphere Contributor analysis orders the means into a plan, based upon Exhorter energy.Let’s move sideways for a moment. It appears that we are very close to the core circuit which is active during the dreaming that occurs in the brain while we sleep. Let’s move just a little further, and see if we can figure it out. Neurology tells us, first of all, that dreaming is part of a circuit which is separate from REM, or rapid eye movement; we are told secondly that dreaming is cognitive, and we are informed thirdly that dreaming involves the dopamine aspects of the mind, which we have seen are related to Exhorter strategy, and it also involves the frontal regions of the brain where we have suggested Exhorter thought is located. Here’s a quote from the neurological literature – these three points emerge very clearly:“These observations show that dreaming is not an intrinsic function of REM sleep (or the brain stem mechanisms that control it). Rather, dreaming appears to be a consequence of various forms of cerebral activation [or active thought] during sleep. This implies a two-stage process, involving (1) cerebral activation during sleep and (2) dreaming. The first stage can take various forms, none of which is specific to dreaming itself, since reliable dissociations can be demonstrated between dreaming and all of these states (including REM). The second stage (dreaming itself) occurs only if and when the initial activation stage engages the dopaminergic [and thus Exhorter] circuits of the ventromesial forebrain. It is reasonable to hypothesize on this basis that these forebrain circuits are the final common path leading from various forms of cerebral activation during sleep (both REM and NREM) to dreaming per se. In this view, the high correlation between dreaming and the REM state merely reflects the fact that it is a regular and persistent source of cerebral activation during sleep. It is also possible that specific aspects of the REM state (e.g. noradrenergic [Facilitator] and serotonergic [Contributor] demodulation [or deactivation]) facilitate the primary dopaminergic [Exhorter] effects. However, such facilitatory factors, which vary across the different sleep states associated with dreaming are not intrinsic to the dream process itself.”Alright, if dreaming is helped along on its path by Contributor strategy and its serotonin, or by Facilitator thought and its noradrenaline, but is in fact separate from them, let’s eliminate these extra components, and see what is left – that should be the core loop which is responsible for the dream state itself, and of course also for the Exhorter’s day-dreaming. A look at the diagram immediately suggests that we have discovered Exhorter working memory. It is no wonder that the Exhorter person, who is conscious in this region, can daydream at will. Let’s name this loop. As we have characterized Facilitator working memory and its waking consciousness as the Reason loop, so we will call Exhorter working memory, and its complete absence of this Facilitator waking consciousness, as the Dream circuit, or D1.Now, let’s apply what we have learned back to our description of the Exhorter as a cognitive style. We conclude that the undisciplined Exhorter is driven by dreams; these do not interact in any positive way with Contributor strategy. They are not realistic, and they are not related to anything possible. For instance, the undisciplined Exhorter might say, “My dream is to be an astronaut.” However, he is not taking flying lessons, and he is not studying aeronautics. He is motivated by a dream, not a vision.The more disciplined Exhorter has a vision; it is a dream which has some end goal, derived from Contributor strategy in the left hemisphere, or C(l), and it is being implemented step by step, within Contributor strategy in the right hemisphere or C(r), through some sequence of means. We notice in particular that the loop in the mind of a disciplined Exhorter has expanded from the pure dream state to include Contributor thought in the left hemisphere.The truly disciplined Exhorter evaluates information that passes along INFP and compares it to ENFP; then, he alters his vision and his end goals within left hemisphere Contributor analysis in the light of what he sees. This generates character. As we can see, Character is an inner loop or subset of Vision that can maintain Exhorter focus on some emotional Mercy-based end state, even when Contributor strategy in left hemisphere C(l) becomes passive and lacks will, and even when C(r), or Contributor analysis in the right hemisphere, would like to procrastinate and do things tomorrow.The fully developed Exhorter evaluates data which flows along INFJ and compares it to that which goes along ENFJ. Then, he adjusts the drive which flows to Contributor strategy in the right hemisphere, to help it in its choice of means. This creates discernment. Discernment maintains drive to keep things going, in right hemisphere Contributor strategy, on the basis of some partial Teacher understanding, even when a Contributor end or goal in the left hemisphere is not yet clear. We call this ‘hope.’The mature Exhorter becomes a friend of his Perceiver strategy and its principles. He observes what is happening in the world around him, and he uses it to create a more accurate conscience in the Perceiver strategy that filters the energy that he is sending to Contributor analysis in the right hemisphere.The result of all this is an intelligent division of labor between Contributor and Exhorter thought. The Exhorter individual prods others, but won’t decide for them; the Contributor is strong-willed, and makes the final decision, based on options made available to him from his subconscious. The Exhorter person drives others; the Contributor feels driven, and can become the workaholic.Exhorter and Contributor strategies cooperate in generating speech and action. The Exhorter person, for example, thrives in crisis and is always moving on. The Contributor intercepts what his subconscious Exhorter strategy would like to do, and he weaves it into a plan. He practices it in his head. He perfects it, before any action is done. The Exhorter individual is clumsy, for he is conscious in the beginning stages of movement, and he implements things from that stage; the Contributor has excellent hand-eye coordination, and is very skilled with his fingers. The Exhorter person is the ultimate ad-lib speaker; the Contributor cuts out what is unneces­sary—small talk, for example—and limits himself to what is important.The Contributor person loves challenge and adventure. Danger, first of all, stimulates his underlying Exhorter analysis, which thrives in crisis; this gives him energy. The Contributor individual makes sure that everything is planned, though, so that nothing ever truly does go wrong. If it did, then his subconscious Exhorter analysis would take over and generate ‘transitions,’ in thought and action. The Contributor person hates this. He sees it as ‘losing control.’For example, I was watching a Contributor child on the swing while a friend was pushing her. Suddenly, he gave her a larger push than usual. She tensed up and cried, “Oh! Don’t do that again. I almost lost control!”Sometimes the Contributor detaches from his own Exhorter analysis, and ties into the prevailing energy of the group around him – we call this hypnosis, and for the Contributor it turns out to be an extremely common state. Alternatively, Exhorter strategy can detach from Contributor thought – we call that a multiple personality.I’d now like to introduce the diagram of the brain which we will be using from now on. Superimposed on this basic diagram is a depiction of the Exhorter-based Dream loop, drawn in red, and the Facilitator-dominated Reason circuit, depicted in blue.We have seen in our episode thus far that the Dream loop dominates in sleep, and the Reason circuit is the idling mode of human waking consciousness. If we look at the circled area in green, we can see the reason for this. The Dream loop pulls information down from Teacher or T in the left hemisphere, to Exhorter or E, whereas Reason draws data up through this same area. These directions are opposite. Obviously, both loops cannot function at the same time.Similarly in the right hemisphere. The Dream loop pulls information down from Mercy analysis in the right hemisphere, to Exhorter strategy in the right hemisphere, whereas Reason pulls data up through these regions. Once more, the directions are opposite, and it is evident that both loops cannot function simultaneously.However, the loops can integrate into smaller hybrid circuits, which operate in a more restricted fashion. One such circuit turns out to be the foundation for modern democracy, with its ongoing voting and opinion polls. I call it the Approval loop, and we will study it extensively in a later episode, when we examine the philosophy of Hume, a Facilitator philosopher. Some people get stuck mentally in some one MBNI mode – those, for example, who emphasize INFJ, which is a leg of the Approval circuit, turn out to be very strongly rooted in approval and its dependency upon social institutions.The second possible way in which the Dream and Reason circuits can interact, within some one person, is through what I will term the Religion loop. Again, there are implications for personality – those individuals who emphasize the MBNI mode of INFP, which is a leg of the Religion loop, are often highly religious. We’ll be looking at this circuit in more detail when we examine Martin Buber, the Mercy philosopher.So, we can see that the architecture of the human brain is such that Exhorter Dream and Facilitator Reason do not easily interact within any one human individual, except through time sharing that alternates between sleep and consciousness, and through the twin hybrid circuits of Approval and Religion.The Exhorter on his part can have uninhibited hedonistic urges. Neuroimaging confirms that “We previously analyzed regional cerebral blood flow…during the excitation phase (initiation of penile erection) induced by audiovisual sexual stimuli (AVSS) and identified activation of the cerebellar vermis, the bilateral extrastriate cortex, and right orbitofrontal cortex [Exhorter strategy in the right hemisphere], suggesting a role of cognition/emotion in the excitement phase.” Another paper adds that “Penile erections during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep [which we saw previously will often accompany dreaming] are a robust physiologic phenomenon in all normal healthy males, irrespective of age.” We conclude that the Exhorter and his Dream circuit are perhaps partially linked to the brain’s sexual functions, and that he might indeed develop uninhibited hedonistic urges, if he did not develop his mind beyond the core Dream region in which he as an Exhorter is conscious.OK, what about the Facilitator? He’s tied to higher forms of human Reason: “The cognitive division (ACcd) [dorsal portion of the anterior cingulate cortex, or Facilitator strategy] has been activated by cognitively demanding tasks that involve stimulus–response selection in the face of competing streams of information.” History tells us that the Facilitator, in his attempt to balance tasks, finds it difficult to sense reasonableness. He might therefore recoil from an undisciplined Exhorter in permanent horror, and then feel that all Exhorters are similar. Alternatively, he might also emphasize emotional processing, which occurs in the ventral anterior cingulate portion of Facilitator analysis, where he is also conscious, and become a sensation-seeker. [For those who are interested, these issues are discussed further in orderedcomplexity.pdf.]How does society put it together? What appears to happen is that Exhorter strategy takes over the night – in bars, red light districts, sports stadiums, gambling casinos, movie theaters and rock concerts. The Facilitator is left with the task of integrating the waking mind, and the society within which it operates in its day-to-day life. During periods of consciousness, the Facilitator and the Reason loop use the Exhorter components of the Dream loop as separate pieces, and they progressively de-synchronize as the hours go by. Then, during sleep, when Reason is set aside, the Dream loop integrates the pieces together again, in preparation for another day. With Exhorter excitement and its potential Character and Discernment – as cognitive, thinking entities – largely eliminated from the daytime, life becomes boring, and work separates out from play. This is explored by philosophers such as Max Weber, and we will eventually examine their thought. We will also look at the neurology of depression, and its crucial relation to Facilitator thought.Our next episode in particular will be highly crucial, and quite extensive in its scope. When we have finished this next episode, we will understand how the brain carries out the various stages of the scientific method, and the Exhorter’s potential role in this process. This will prepare us for an eventual discussion of the neurology behind further subjects such as Max Weber’s bureaucracy, Henry Maine’s progression from status to contract, Emile Durkheim’s distinction between restitutive and punitive law, Martin Heidegger’s world of absorbed coping or dealing, and even the micro-economics of Capitalism itself. That’s the end of episode 16, and the beginning of a new phase in these episodes. Thank you for listening.

• Release Date

  Mar 17, 2008

• Runtime

  39:46